STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Good. Alright. So good afternoon. Everyone amazing. Arrived.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah, let them look there.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: She wants us. What do I have? A laser somewhere. Yeah should be.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: or is it? You can change the slides? Actually.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: yeah, I'm very happy. I would really would much rather, if people interrupt me all the time, and we talk about stuff you're interested in. Otherwise I will talk about. You know, whatever I feel like, and you may not worth it, or you might sit in there going. Yeah, I know all this. So any comments are welcome. Please just interrupt at any moment. But basically what I was thinking of talking about was.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: well, actually, I'll just start with, what? What is this heat mechanism? What's it all about? How do we find it?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: About what it tells, and I probably have too many slides. So here and there, or whatever. But
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: yeah, please, any interruption is welcome.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Alright, we start with something that hopefully people understand. I'm hoping that nothing on this slide is is new to people.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Possibly the quarks are slightly less familiar than the proton, but I guess everyone here has heard of Gurk. We haven't.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Nobody has been lost already. Good! All right. So physics is all about the smallest objects.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and we have our standard model, which is sort of encapsulated in this standard set of of quarks and lamp times and forces on. So we're we're dividing all the particles into into these various categories.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I don't know what firmo means, what those definition for Firmio would be.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah, half inch of spins. All these guys got half inches. Spin. Does that mean anything to anyone?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Not much.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So spin is complex. We're dealing in the world of quantum mechanics. Things can only change by finite amounts.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Spin is one of them. It's all in units of H bar. It doesn't matter what H. Bar is. H. Bar is a very small number. If you let H. Bar shrink down towards 0, then everything in particle physics would start. Almost everything would start to look like it's classical. Analog. H. Bar is the number that says, how different is the quantum world from classical world.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So spin is going to be changed by one unit of H bar. If you see an electron, you either see it spinning up plus a half or down minus half. But you can never see it in the in between states. You can only change by one. So these particles are spin half.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: They're coming up, down, well up, spinning versions and down spinning versions. These guys with proper spin one. You can see a spin, one
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: projection in the direction you're looking, or you might see spin minus one, or you might see spin zeros kind of going sideways.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the ones and photons a bit tricky. Photons. You can't get sideways. They exist. So they just not spinning particle in this in this suit. So these are the fundamental bits which is made
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the quarks glue together to me
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: protons and neutrons and lots of things called pylons, that will feel the strong nuclear force.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: whereas the the electron, these guys don't do the strong nuclear force. These are sub standard. Everyday matter is in what they call the 1st generation. 2 ups and down is a proton, an electron, going around. It makes a hydrogen atom. And then actually, there's a lot more neutrinos than there are any of these other fermions left over from the Big Bang.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Think nobody's ever seen them. But if our models are leaving right, it's like a million or 10 million of these neutrino. It's very, very odd.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: so it's all around, but the heavy ones we don't get very often. The heavy ones are just as fundamental as the the lighter ones. The academic ones
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: with an squat weighs 95,
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and it can decay into a damned quark and an electron and neutrino. Look at their laptop.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So your heavy thing, because this is light objects somewhere you could spin on those pieces
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: but one a pound coin is not made in one pence pieces. One pence piece is not more fundamental, but you can't turn one pence piece into a pan cotton without a lot of work.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So similarly, the universe
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: tends to end up little small change the lightest things that can't split him off. And if you want to make everyone you have to bangle things together for a while.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: All right.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So this is our model. Can I not see the obvious big missing gap in this model
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: say obvious. But maybe I shouldn't say this is obvious to me, because I've been looking into money for decades.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We've got strong media valves. We've got an electromagnetic force.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We got a weak decay force. What force is missing?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah. So gravity. We don't know how to put gravity together in this picture. That's 1 of the big defects. I can pretty easily prove gravity exists. So no one's going to stand up and tell you the standard model is the final answer. This is it like complete? Because there's lots of things we don't understand. So here's some of my kind of
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: favorite questions.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: one of them is that if we are sitting in a lab like Cern and we bang together energy, we make matter antimatter coming out of this.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: but we always make matter and antimatter an equal opposite, Max. But the universe doesn't seem to have any antimatter very little. It's almost all matter. So
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: where does it answer? Why are we all know? It seems to be a big question.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: As I said, we don't have gravity.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But there's also dark matter. If you go and observe a rotation, curves of galaxies.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: general relativity, Newton's gravitation. They don't quite predict correctly the rotation speeds of. There's all sorts of strands of evidence for that matter, not every theorist will accept it exists. There are alternative ideas being put out, but most people think that there's some form of matter that we just can't see. It doesn't show up in our telescopes.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And similarly, don't imagery. The Big Bang happened 13 billion years ago.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Lots of bits are flying apart. You would imagine they have gravitational attraction slowing down. But they're not accelerating. They're driving themselves apart faster and faster. So something's making the universe acceleration expand. We call that dark energy when you have really nothing.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So there's lots of open, open questions. Before we built the Lhc. We didn't know where mass came from. Our models all wanted everything the way everything, in a sense. Now we have. We've seen particles have mass, but we have no idea why an electron waves point
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: 5 1 1 where that come from. Some people think that's a real physics question. I'm not sure if it's a real physics question, why does it have this value, but if you could produce a theory to explain it, I'd be very happy. And then neutrino mass
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the neutrinos, those lightest particles.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's a bit strange. You might say to someone, yeah, we measure neutrinos a bit. We know they have mass. It's probably just like an electron mass. It could be. But there are other mass mechanisms available to neutrinos are unique to them. So, although we know neutrinos have mass, we don't know what the G. 2 H mechanism that other particles use, or it's something different. So something to understand. There.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: all right.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So this is what this is mostly about. So let's get to get to Peter.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and he was. He was stuck back in the 19 sixties because
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: we had. We'd seen the photon we knew about the photon. We knew it was a massless particle, but the math said that all particles should be massless, and other particles were not in particular. He was worried about the the W and Z particles. So these are the these are the carriers. These are particles that carry the weak nuclear force.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: they haven't even been discovered. But the explanation we were giving for why they haven't been discovered was a little too heavy, so an undiscovered particle the prediction was, it must be getting mass from somewhere, and we didn't really understand why the photon, which is one force carrier and the Z, which is always very like it. One should be massless, another massive. It didn't make much sense.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And furthermore, it's not easy to add masses of particles. There's something called gauge symmetry, which you do want to come to my 14 lectures and more in one day. That's great. But today I'm not going to get through it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But the the point is that
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: you can't just write down, have some mass. It breaks the bottle. So you've got to do some tricks, Peter. 2 years ago now I should have Updated that slide. Peter had an idea back in 1964.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And I'm actually gonna show you this paper. But I won't show it very long. 2 slides just to say, Look, there's 1 sheet of a 4,
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and there's another option. You go for amazing enterprise, and even worth. Say, he winds up here.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: This.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So essentially the same conclusions have been reached in the working product.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: In other words, yeah, you know, my math here wasn't- wasn't complete. But these other guys already group this. So it's fine. So that's what we get in their all right.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Skipping off on that. What was he? What was he suggesting
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: should have written it on the side. I didn't.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But probably the equation E equals. Mc squared is pretty well known. What does E equals Mc squared. Tell us.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: yeah.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Mg, release from masses. Like, proportional with C squared. Yeah, absolutely.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So, energy and mass, we're related. They're proportionality squared. By the way, I'm not going to put a C into any of my equations.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We often work in units where C is one, so we'll see. Just disappears from us to me equals. N, but okay, that's fine.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Eagles end. Sort this one off
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: polygraph here is supposed to show. If you increase the density, the amount of something, the amount of energy you you need is proportional to the amount of something you have. That's sort of sensible. If I've got one
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: one smarty and get another smarty, that's twice as much energy, 3 times as much energy with 3 smarties. It's sort of obvious. It's so obvious. We don't even think it's obvious, because it's just like, of course it's that way. What else could it be?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And so what Peter did was, one said, well, let's let's propose it isn't
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: in that paper. He doesn't actually give a form to the equations.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: He says we don't have how many people have differentiations. But he says, let's have the the potential, the amount of energy
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: as you change the amount, field
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: should be still at some point
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: that's here. As you change the field, the density, the energy doesn't change in that red line. It's 0 at that point. But the second differential is positive. That means, as you start to go away, it starts to accelerate upwards. So he's saying there should exist some minimum point in a potential. That was what he proposed. That always goes into his paper. He doesn't actually put down this form in that 1st paper.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But nowadays we we go straight on into this this standard form, minus a 5 squared plus a squared 5 to 4, th
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: which should have just dropped the 5 a times the density plus a a plus a different, a 2 times density squared. So that's that's what I've drawn here as a quadratic equation.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: If you're paying attention.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: you'll know that that equation, for when rho equals 0 should be 0. So yeah, I offset this red graph a bit. So it was 0 0. But that's just moving it up and down.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So this is what what Peter is proposing. Let's say we've got some particle. Let's call it X, where the energy needed to make them. If you start from no Hicks at all, no density of Hicks around, and you make a few
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: that releases energy making. The 1st view gives off energy. Then you get to some minimum where
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: nothing much changes, and then you start to need energy to make more uses.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: This is really weird. This is not like matter as we know it, right. If you start with an empty box.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: if you go all the way and come back and look at the box again, you'll find it's filled up with eases
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: to this density work, and then we've done some energy.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's a really really odd idea. Why on earth did he come up with this idea at all?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Well, he came up with it because he leaked it from signal activity.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: superconductivity. I won't just go into it. But there is. There's a reason for it there. It's a mass that explains how electrons interactivity
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: these homes are going to be.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: The magic state won't do. Lose all the electrical positions it uses the same maths. But there's reasons here. There is no reason for you to just say, let's just invent this this potential.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Who knows it? Might, it might work right?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Why does it work?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's trapped in the fact that I've done something slightly tricky when I converted between a row here and a 5 squared 5 squared would allow negative or positive 5
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: still be the same number. So mostly, you see this graph reflected and positive that people
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the kind of double member, and it's a symmetric set of equations. If I. It respects our symmetry that we wanted about.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: but we know that the action for end result will roll down into one of the minimum, left or right, and we will actually be sitting in the universe, which is asymmetric. So you put down symmetric equations, which is a gauge symmetry thing immediately.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: but the result is asymmetric and otherwise massing. So that's the type of it. Symmetric bridges with any asymmetric result
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: all right.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Moving on quickly from from mathematics. We have a fish tank, and
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: it's full of weeds and rocks and goldfish you put on. Yeah.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: weeds and rocks, and see the 3 goldfish in it, and the fish will probably tell you it's an empty tank.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Well, the heaps field is a bit so used to be inside this dense heaps, field everywhere, but we don't know what it's like to be outside. So if we were to get somehow outside the heaps.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the particles are particularly electrons in in our bodies would become massless, then they would zip off the speed of light and disappear would fall apart.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We've got, you know. We don't really feel the same feeling, because whenever outside it, we don't know what it's like to be.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah, that's fine. So how do we know this? This model is correct?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Basically, if you take the water hard enough, it should rip them. If you take that big, you should see a ripple in it, and we call the ripple, the exposed. And so
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the standard state of the universe in this model of Peters is, it's is everywhere so much that you can hardly move if you kick one hard enough, it's set off from the invisible whole thing.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So the ellipse is designed basically to kick that vacuum hard enough to not have the heat expose on it moving so we can see it
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: all right. So this is the opsy 27 kilometers ring next in the 19 eighties. When I was doing a doctorate in particle physics. They finished the
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: leading the tunnel. Just as I started my doctorate. They put in an electron glider which I studied for years, and then they took it out, and in 2,007, about in 2,009, we put in this proton proton glider called the Ihc. So the protons go around
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: rings. We've got kind of linear accelerator. We go around a ring, speed up. We go around another ring, speed. Up we go to the Lh and speed up. And then there's 4 points around the where the projects can collide, and we sit detective and see what happens.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: All right. So the Nhc's accelerating proton is up to 6,800 Gb. What is a Ged? A. Gdb. Is about the energy of the proton. We said, E equals Mc squared. We can equate energy matter.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So we're giving the protons a band of kinetic energy that when 2 of them collide they could make 13,000 protons in the debris that would be impressive.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: They make typically 50 or something particles, not not 13,000. But they've got a lot of energy.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Another one says electric one electron gets, you know, from one end to the other one bolt battery.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So yeah, we're talking about Giga, so we can get 10 to the 9, 1, 4 batteries in a row.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Quite a lot to get one Gp. Only going 6,800.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: The speed is going to be right.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah, speed of light.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: They've been another 27 kilometer tunnel.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: That means they've got only 11,000 per second could be glued.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But that means you're going almost the speed of light this way
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: to almost see them like this way. And you're inversing into a 22,000th of a second.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So at that speed you get to the near star in time for T. With Lorentz contractions and other time donations is sufficient that you feel like a few hours, and somehow we have to accelerate these 4 protons. So they reverse direction completely. So they've been bent by about 10 to the 17 gravities. They've got an incredible acceleration put on to keep them orbiting.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And that's the difficulty, Collider, actually, because since they're going around 11,000 times a second, we can have an accelerating box sitting here that kicks them each time they go faster, faster, but they go past it, and they're special. What needs to be special is the magnets that keep them turning.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So. Tesla Lake country, Tesla, we don't swim in the field
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: 5 0 4 zeros and 3 Tesla equator. Your typical fridge magnet can be point to one. Tesla, the strongest magnet I've held permanent is one Tesla, but I believe there are permanent magnets that get as high as 5 Tesla whatever, 1 million times.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: but nothing with a permanent magnetic gate. So the only way to get a strong enough magnetic field is to put a lot of courage in wire. It doesn't take much mass if given the right equation to see that you need. You're going to have a proton, a few centimeters for wire. You're going to have another maker Amp blow through to make the field you need. What we actually do is we have 12,000 amps
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: turned 80 times. So we've got these coils. We have 80 coils wire moving around it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: What happens?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And that's what provides the 1 million apps that which is the
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: which is the protonism to to circulate?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Of course, loss is a conductor.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Go like I squared armor. So you got 12,000 amps and one ohm, you'd have 144 megawatts eating. We couldn't afford that. So the only way we can do this is by using simply cable.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and the whole thing has to be cooled down to actually, in this case.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: to keep the keep the secret of Super.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Probably none of you likely this thrown in next week in a couple of hours, drive north of Moscow, but they have 2 accelerators in the same room, same size, same field in there. The room is only 5 times this one. It's not huge, but it's it's got one accelerator which is built ordinary, which is twice the height of this room, where you can walk down the middle of it and the wires the size of my leg. And then there's a replacement
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: that's the same job.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's much easier to produce equipment. It's cheaper. We couldn't have done this without it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Alright. So then we have to have a detective sees what happens, I'm working with someone called Atlas.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: See? My picture?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah. Atlas is tall, wide. Be, basically, when when photons collide stuff coming out coming out. So Atlas has to be big to stop it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: There's a couple with you.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: The red bits in the middle, or what's called a tracker trying to measure the particles like Stirling them.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and then surrounded by yellow and green cabaretors, which are lots of of- of- of
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: lead, lead and steel, which is designed to stop the particles and give up that energy. And then the neon is a very penetrating part, because we can get through all that in steel. So we've got a whole system of detectors outside here we call neon detectors that are looking for neons that might get mentioned. So this middle bit
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I shall focus in on. It's kind of meter in radius, 7 meters long.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Sorry, 1,082 of radius. And the middle of this this bit is tracking detectors. So there's various technologies in here doesn't matter what they are. They're designed to be as light as possible. And here we've got some layers. One about a quarter of these were made up of the lab for these. This particular bit of detector here and
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: is one of them. We put together 20 years ago.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: it's a 12 cm by 6 cm. Silicon
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: silicon is a semiconductor. Semiconductor means that the electrons are not very well tied to the atoms. So when a proton or some particle passes through this, it's charged particle. The electric charge of it knocks electrons off the atoms, it knocks about 20,000 electrons off in the 3rd time in.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So we can then
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: 100 volts, 200 volts, 500 volts. Now between the front and the back. We drift the electrons from one outside, and then we lay down. What metal wires on the surface, so we see which wire does it drift to by having some redapp. So each watching 128 channels to see which wires gets gets hit.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: The 6 chips on the front, 6 on the back, 2 detectors and
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the collide, 40 megahertz. So 40 million times a second is gonna hit. This we have to read out 40 million times a second.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: That would be one DVD's worth of data. We have that many channels from that device. We built 800 of them with our friends. They're all sitting there.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We report the precision of things to a few microns. I won't go into discussion about. But yeah, okay, fine.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Why do we have all these different layers we've got, I said. There was a led and a steel covering. So trackers and in front chambers behind the point is that different sorts of particles interact differently with different materials. Let's not get hung up on what to do and what at this point.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But we're trying to work out
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: when a collision happens when something interesting happens in harm to the Lhc, we're going to be looking at the decay products and stuff flying out. And we're going to be asking what went wrong. And that's helped. If we can measure what type of particle it is, and if we can measure its direction, momentum energy
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: measure its properties. So putting together the different pieces of ads to find out what sort of parts we want to use, and particularly a proton is about 3 quarks, and they're held together, 6 of them together. When you smash that quarks and glue are flying everywhere.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Some magic happens. We don't quite understand, but they make more Hadrons, more things built. So you don't get 3 quark. You get a ion or a proton, or whatever you get some quark stuff. Then you see an electron or a muon or a photon coming out. Then you go. Okay, we've started one of those. Something interesting has happened to make it. We'll record that we'll see what it is.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: All right. Ages signed out in 2010. Peace discovery was was in- in mid 2012.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: You know.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: we we designed it to be able to do that. We did it fairly, fairly, promptly. Really.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: these are amounts of data produced in each year versus month in the year. Here's where we are this year. We're going up on a rate pretty much matches last year. Last year you can see much better than before. Every year looks better and better. It's giving us more and more data, allowing us to look deeper and make better studies of things. So we've now got
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: confess to. These are rather approximate numbers. But we've got sort of 50 billion bosons and 400 million dropbox pairs of about 15 million. And this is for all these particles. This is just hugely large numbers than we ever see in any previous detector. So we have published so far. 1,394 papers for microscope analyzing these particles, looking for new ones, looking at correlations.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Really, yeah, all sorts of variety stuff that I have no time to talk about. My interest has been exposed on. So get back to that
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: love.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Here's a collision event from last year.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: There are a lot of tracks. Why are there a lot of tracks? We're trying to look for rare processes, so we keep turning up the rays which the protons go live. The protons are going around the accelerating bunches when the bunches pass through each other, and, by the way, they are about a quarter of a hair's width when the bunches pass through each other, 60 proton pairs smash, and the lost particles go flying out.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But here is one neon. But like this up this detector on the edge. You can see what we like, neons. It stands out. If you're looking at the neon detector, you go. Okay. There's 1 neon in this, you know. I know I'm looking at. The tracker is a little mess. One proposal decades ago before we built this. Let's just forget this bit of detector and bother building it. Let's just do this thing. It'd be cheaper and easier than what we're doing the actions.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Here's another event of an older one, but for now which has got 2 meals in it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and you might say to yourself, we can measure their curvature, because this is in a magnetic field, instead of bending one left and one right. That tells us they're oppositely charged. We can measure their momentum as well.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We can also turn the segment side and look at them sideways
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and blow up the collision point. And now you can see the bit. That's as long as my finger has lots of proton collisions going on down it. But the 2 neurons came from the same one. So you're not okay? Well, that's interesting. Maybe they're connected.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: How do I, then how would I know?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: What we do? Is we say, well, let's calculate what the mass of some object will be. If you could have given, we can work out the invariant mass that the rest mass of
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: an object might need them.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And then we make a histogram.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: so that particular one has about a hundred 90 gev, and
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: yeah, so you can get any number right? Most pairs and muons aren't particularly connected to each other, anyway. But there's a whole string of particles going from the eta to the Z.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: They can decay into new plus and minus, and if they do, they give you the best mass of that particle. So the J. Psi is the most common here, 3.0 9 6 gb. Whenever you get J. Sine you get every one to the mass, 3.0 9 6. We measure it with some accuracy. You get quite a nice sharp peak at 3.0 9, 6. So we can just look at this spot and go. We see 8 different particles. Unfortunately, you're all with 8 particles already, but it would be a great way to discover them if we hadn't. That's like the history of 20th century particle physics laid out there.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Fine. What we're hoping with Lhc is 1100. We've got means combining the 10,000.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We haven't seen an old one like this actually, new one hasn't been there before. This is a very, very small data set from very early days. But
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: absolutely, I said, we published 1,300 papers.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Here's the results of a few of them.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: You ask for some process.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Production was, that was all we were just looking at.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We measure the rate of it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We can evaluate the theory.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: The data is the it is the data, the triangles. The theory is the color blobs, basically because the data measurements line up perfectly
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: in almost every case.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Obviously, when you make 100 measurements. There's some a bit dodgy. So here we've got a W and 2 photons. We're getting twice as many of those as expected. Basically, this is an incredible triumph of theory and experiment that we're able to predict all these things
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and get to run. So there's all working.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We've seen that H. Measured in lots of different channels.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: What I was gonna talk about. I'm talking slowly.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: let's not worry too much about how much it makes pixes. Let's focus on how you have a decay. The pigs is decay almost instantly.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and they like to decay to the heaviest pair of particles you can.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's a bit tricky with W's and Z's. They'd like to decay to them, but they're a bit too heavy. They're on the edge. Big quarks turn out to be the sweet spot, most of them. It's the heaviest quark which weighs less than half the weight of Higgs. So Higgs is a huge pair of any quarks, but actually rare decays like doing photon pairs are not very useful with discovering, because they stand out more
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: makes a lot of clocks. It doesn't make any sense or functions.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So by 2012, with this discovery we we smashed about 10 or 15 Brookton bears and we had to try and find
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: in particular.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I hate going before this 2 photons, or into electrons and neons to through a resent.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And so these these are how we discovered it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and the Friday, the 29th of June was an important day for me, because I was one of 10 people who gathered together in a little private room itself. And we looked at the data from my experiment, and we looked at the data from the competitor's experiment, and we both had bumps of 1, 25, and they were both nearly 5. Sigma 5. Sigma is the statistical level. We came, and we used to make a discovery. Not sure we really do
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: so what do we look at it? What do we say to each other? Well, that's very interesting. We've got a summer coming up next week. What we gonna say.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: we've been planning this for years to be absolutely certain to go out and say we find it. If we hadn't.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: that would have been tricky. So we included more pages needed.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But then we had a nervous weekend chatting with each other all weekends.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and my spokesperson has to go to the dentist from something only for emergency dental surgery. Anyway, by the time we got to Wednesday we just had to say, yeah, we found it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So what do we find.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So this is looking for heat with 4 electrons. So here we've got
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: 2 electrons, which is 2 neurons that hey? From a different detector. Let's stand out in their own ways. They all come from the same point.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: If you look at the energy box, it's very clear that all the energy is really those 4 particles.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Mike.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: my parents got herself into perpetual trouble for using comic san scripts, which everyone thinks is a complete memo. We should never do. But anyway, she used her comic San scripts and said, Look, this red stuff is the background we predicted from the sound model that we know about.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Here's what I think. So 350, or 190, or 125 would look like, oh, look at 125. We see
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: 13 events where you should have seen 5.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: You know, you get fluctuations, but it's not a bit with same sort of excess.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah, but some it would not be sufficient. But we also have this decay of the existing photons. So again, the energy box is 2 lumps of energy. We ask the question, what mass is?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: There's photons are. If you collide stuff, high energy photons are light. You always get some sparks coming out of the collision. So we've got quite a lot of background. It's not as clean as the before Lepton was, but you can see, maybe even visually, more clearly, maps, at least by the time we put a low eye into it you can see that there's a bump of 1.5. So those 2 together. This gives us R. 5 Sigma R. And so we found within.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: but also resistant for that. Right?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So the director's conclusion was global efforts, global success. We've done it. We had it in his words.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So since then what we've been doing right. That was 2012, when many years on. Well, now, we've measured
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: evidence for a couple more. This one. There's a conference coming up next week where my experiment is going to say we've got 3 similar evidence for this. We announce that secret next week.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But don't tell anyone this isn't being recorded. Is it?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Right?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: we measure lots of things that that peak of the heats into Z is no longer just a few events. It's not a nice, well measured peak. We use it to measure the mass rather than accurately to a few, you know, a few parts and a few a few per 1 million precision.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and measuring different Gamma Peak has turned from being a dubious peak to one of really no big question. And there's a lot of events in this peak. So we've split it up and measure it in 20 different production modes. These are all very bad measurements. By the way, one will be 100%. 0 is nothing. 2 is 200. So most of these measurements are really very poor, but never mind, we are able to characterize it and check that nothing really stupid happens in some production mode everything to the expectations.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And so we put it all together. And we now say, well, this heats boson. We've measured its interactions with top parts. Z's W's B's times Mus. In every case it does what we just said it would. The interaction strength is proportional to mass.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Why, those masses mostly, you know that all right, few minutes left.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So what are they all
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: imply? Well, for me at least the Higgs views. It's the idea that we are now sitting inside a liquid of Higgs. If anybody's ever the lumiferous ether that was discussed at the end of the 19th century, and the question of How does light move around? Maybe there's some substance which passes. This actually has a lot of the properties of the luminiferous ether, except it doesn't really drag the light. But it's almost right.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I showed you a picture of what the field look like as you vary the density bases.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: You've got this minimum point where we go down or up. You need more energy to go either way.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: all right.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But if you but we just made up this right because you invented that equation.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I'm perfectly happy to go and invent another equation where I had a a row. Q. Term on the end.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: that's all minus. These are both 2 2 different versions of that equation where I've just added a row Q. Term, and I've fixed my constants, my B's and my C's, so that the shape looks just the same year. One, which is the bit we're measuring.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Measuring this, by the way, allows us to measure zippers and mass. So, measuring zippers on that measures the shape of this curve right here?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: so you know that all we couldn't tell the difference today, or whether we're in this universe or this universe or one, Peter predicted. All we know is, he wrote down a random equation that seems to work. But I can write down 2 more work just as well.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And actually, they're more important than that, because Peter's equation, we always show it at 0 temperature.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And it changes and we keep the excuse up if you keep the excuse up enough.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's not going into this sort of shape.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Now, this is a very interesting kind of shape, because you start off the Big bang! We assume there's no expense in the universe you make. The universe is some heat is up here and drive you into this minimum of a city, and we check you were there.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But if one day leaks, Field gets hot
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and somebody kicks it over this hill, you'll start going down here
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: as it goes down. It's going to release energy as it goes down. Further, the density will increase, more energy will release, and this never stops.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It just goes down forever releasing an infinite amount of energy.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: That's Gonna kick all in the Higgs view of language. And so you'll get
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: a sort of ball of super dense, infinite, dense states, expanding the speed of light which will simply wipe the universe, the speed of light and astronomy.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So yeah, that's that's what our math tells us today, if you get the University hard enough, that will be the result.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Of course I don't believe our maths, because I know we don't know what dark matter is. I don't know what gravity is. There's lots of stuff along with our maths, but that is where we currently think our interactions are telling us we are.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: you shouldn't worry too much about it, because if it happens, it'll happen at speed of light, so you'll never notice it's coming.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We'll just be going.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But actually it could be. This whole thing could be good.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's only this extension is made up.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: If, if, instead of the common one being that curve. It actually turns out with this red, dotted curve.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the universe gets trapped. There's a little sort of dimple put in here, so you need a bit of energy to get away from 0 density.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: If the universe really know that red dotted curve, then, when the Big Bang happened, it wouldn't just instantly down to the bottom. It was stuck there for a while until some bits of the universe got kicked into the minimum, and then it would have released a lot of energy between expanding fireball that would have blown up.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And one of the interesting things is this is one of the conditions needed to create in the universe. So this might turn out to be the explanation of why we have matter, and then antimatter is that the age potential does not look quite the way that you wrote down.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We don't.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Maintenance leads here is coming up great sufficient interest.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's ridiculously dense.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: A pint of water has a massive amount of you. So it's a lot of energy in there. But we know that it doesn't feel gravity. Gravity does not interact with it, because otherwise it doesn't collapse. But we don't know the theory of gravity in quantum mechanics.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But where does it come from? It comes from that 5 to the 4th term, 5 squared term row square terms. So we
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: can measure the interactions of these bosons with each other.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We'll check whether or not this is right. So this is now one of the big ones that actually
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: they'll make events where you have 2 mixed photosons.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Unfortunately, there are processes like this. We make 2 mixed bosons, but they're nothing to do with each other.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: or just something. This where you make one pixel and it turns into 2. If we can see this diagram we can measure, then we can measure the rate to check whether these equations actually have a real meaning to them.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Today, we don't have proof of dynamics production. But this is why we want to run on Lhc for extra 10 years and
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and do this. So we need 10 times as much data.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It's going to be involved rebuilding the accelerator and the detectors to do it. We're trying to rebuild the new tracking detector, for Atlas is part of the construction. Yeah. So we have a couple of years to build a new detector which hopefully will work better than the previous one, and we will be able to slot it in
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and find out whether the 6 view is really there, and how it really is, whether it's
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: ask you to describe, or maybe something different and more interesting. I just like to point out, if you go down to the library some of the libraries there's a there's a quotation on the on the door as you go in from Newton.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: where he describes the world as matter, and forces acting on particles and strong forces interacting between them and that model particles and forces interacting between them. It worked well from 17 0, 4 to 2012. But nowadays we have to understand that we seem to have the same field that everything is embedded in. If we want to really understand how it's working.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So the results.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So that this is a highly motivated reason to go and do and take 10,000.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Let's not gonna discover something else on the way. So who knows?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Anything good to know. Great thing about the Lhc is a collider which
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: it's producing huge numbers of different sorts of continents. And if there are new unknown particles, we may just not look to marketplace here.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Okay, thank you.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Questions.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yeah.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Do you think, because of the assumptions that Peter made
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: as well, that discovery was partly down to luck as well.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Good question. Okay. So I simplify
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: a little bit. If I if I do go and write down
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: this extra term that I was introducing here without having a refute. Certainly
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: that theory actually is not a complete theory can't get full description. Nature, this one can. This is the only one which
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: it can be sort of totally mathematically self consistent. So there is more reason to think that this is the right one behind. But there's plenty of reason to think that other things could come along who may look like this? I said. Not a complete description of nature, but we know that we're missing stuff from nature. So.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But the other thing to say is, when I started on this business, I think there were 6 different theories of where mass came from by the time we run that electron Bostron glider in the 27 kilometer tunnel before the X built. We've ruled out 5 of them, so we only had one theory left that explain where mass came from.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: It works right. This proves maths works. This is invented to explain why the W. And Z. Never even been discovered. Why haven't they been discovered? Oh, it must be because of this extra Higgs particle.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Think it's think it's an impressive demonstration, and that exactly does something useful.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Are there any like technological applications
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: meant to look this up? Because I knew this was a question somebody's electromagnetism asked the same question is, maybe we don't know what we've done with it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: One example I quite like at the moment is that I have a phone in my pocket. That is my phone here. I can pick up my Google Maps. And I can see where I am. This only works because we understand general relativity and science theory of planets. Orbit needed that better theory of gravity than Newton's in order to understand how the satellites are orbiting the earth accurately enough for the GPS system to be able to work.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I have no idea that any education, applications, things.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I do know that the
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the magnets which we are using which we're preparing for the Hlhc.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: We use much better superconductors from the original energy magnets. Those magnets went into the Ndr machines which we used to find flight proteins on COVID-19. So already technological spin offs happening. But whether there's any use fakes.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: mobile account.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But the one of the theories that we ruled out would have allowed you to vary mass. It was wrong.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: no questions.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: And then it's not really related to hate. But could you explain a little bit more about spin
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: spin was discovered, but the observation that the word different sorts of electrons comes from taking a beam of silver and passing it through a variable magnetic field sort of spin-gerlach experiment. If you pass a beam of electrons in the right
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: iron state through there, it's like being a silver atoms through it, and you put a pane of glass up here to collect them.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: The silver atoms split into 2. So you get 2 blobs of silver deposited on the on the pane of glass. So this is how we kind of knew that there must be 2 different forms in which the state of silver was sitting
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: in terms of
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: as in terms of things like angular momentum of supporting. It works exactly as if it were just just angular momentum.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But yeah, it's it runs into this fundamental limit that it only ever changes in minutes. One
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: The the description of the
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the prediction of Antioxone that was made in the 19 twenties. This came out from a guy called writing down an equation to try and explain
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: how spin works up and down and realized that you could only get consistent picture of it, it'd be alive matter and antimatter as well as up and down spin. I'm not sure that helps, complicates it.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: it!
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Why is it that if I look at an electron orbiting a hydrogen atom, I can see a discrete set of line patterns. Only certain energies come out. I mean, I go. Yeah, there's certain orbits that are radius orbits an electron can have. There's an energy associated with those moving between those takes a finite amount of energy. It comes out in those discrete lumps for a lot, and spin is the same, comes in a discrete lump.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: but I can't really give you an underlying picture of what's going on.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: No questions mentioned about the Higgs meal.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: and that it could. The office of temperatures. You can talk about
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: theoretical temperatures, large ones, very large ones. We're talking about things that are 10 to 50 years before the universe will randomly get turned off through this state. It's not like it's gonna happen tomorrow. No.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: however, there is a big theoretical discussion. Actually, I didn't recently, 2 or 3 years ago, with big theoretical discussion about whether the Big Bang would have set this off. It could have happened.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: There's a lot of energy got kicked into the Big Bang. A lot of people suspect that if this is really what's gonna happen, they've done it already.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But if that small group we don't have a theory of gravity.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Don't know the answer.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Do you think this might be a strange question? But like, do you think all the particles were created exactly at the same time.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I'm not actually an expert on mutation when you start with is a high energy state. You pass through this phase of the Higgs, releasing a lot of energy. But there's another step
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: in the evolution of the universe which is called inflation. Something happened that made the universe size increase by a factor of like 10 or 7 in a very short period. That must have been an energy releasing phase. Both of these drops. This Higgs drop. The energy is different from whatever caused inflation we sometimes talk about input on some other field that may be driven inflation that happened before the Higgs.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: All these stages that reach energy.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the energy consuming to matter and antimatter. So they're all producing, producing particles. And the the energy releasing is in a rather efficient spike.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So it's a sort of sequential process.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: What we can look at more clearly is, at what point do you stop having enough energy to make things. The temperatures drop as you go down, and then the heavier a particle is, the harder it is to keep producing it, and since they all get all heavy ones. K. Then, you know, you stop having heavy particles after a while, as the energy universe cools down and expands.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Think it's just great mess creation, destruction going on all over the place everywhere.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Yep, what's the relationship with the Higgs field? That mass and dark matter?
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: Dark matter is a very interesting one. So I mean we.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I already mentioned that most of the all the matter particles hit their mass through the director of Riggs Field.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: the neutrinos we're not certain about. They have their own mass mechanism which they might get used, or they may just go and do whatever the other particle does get them. Actually, we don't know the answer. We haven't even seen without mass particle. So whether it has some its own mass mechanism, or, as I like to think it interacts with Higgs. I like to think it interacts with Higgs, because if it does interact with the Higgs, the Higgs should decay into it occasionally.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: So one of the tiny hints we actually get at the moment
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: seems a bit unlikely. This kind of just the hint that we're maybe having making peaks which disappear for something we can't see more often we should. If that turned out to be true, then we'd be going. But at the moment. It's just a problem.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: But
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: if if that matter exists and it weighs less than half an incre, somebody drags with it. Then. So that's kind of an interesting thing to
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: yeah.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: No questions
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: was saying the same same
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: popular business. So I'm still talking about this.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: I mean, that's this.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: If not, then let's send the speaker again.
STFC-RAL-CR03 R61: You, too.